A surgeon at Columbia University was in his office preparing for an operation the following day. The year was 1994 and his routine remained unchanged for twenty years: his treasured anatomy atlas opened to an illustration revealing tissue layers to be dissected and writing down each step of surgery on a lined pad. With the world famous 'masterpiece of anatomical illustration' at his side, he prepared for every possible anatomical variation and the operation would be a success. This meticulous approach fuelled a rising academic career, innovative surgeries, research, and enhanced education of many residents in training. His preparation was briefly interrupted by a colleague calling to say hello. The colleague casually remarked that the anatomy atlas the surgeon had been studying was created by Nazi doctors. From that moment, the surgeon's world changed. He looked at the illustrations in a new light. Who were these people? Were they victims of Nazi atrocities? How was it possible that he had no knowledge of this background for twenty years? Was his career based on the incredible suffering of victims and absolute evil? The thirty year journey which followed was an education into the world of evil, with doctors changing from healers to murderers. With genocide being a recurrent theme throughout history, what can be done to prevent these ethical transgressions from happening again? The bioethical issues raised from this story are increasingly more relevant today and may provide a path towards producing a society that heals suffering rather than creating it. AUTHOR: Dr Israel is an academic oral & maxillofacial surgeon known nationally and internationally for his clinical research;and as an educator in the field of chronic orofacial pain;arthroscopic jaw surgery;and the history of Nazi physicians and dentists. He has published over eighty peer reviewed articles in the literature and has delivered presentations on the Nazi origins of Pernkopf's atlas of anatomy;with emphasis on the bioethical lessons and relevance of this history. 30 illustrations
